WholisticResearch are gaining popularity in healthy individuals who seek to improve their memory, attention or vigilance. They include pharmaceutical ‘cognitive doping’ drugs such as methylphenidate, modafinil and other eugeroics (drugs that promote wakefulness), ADHD medications and nootropic supplements. Although the scientific literature on these compounds has been growing rapidly, the neurobiology underpinning their effects is relatively unknown and their impact on different individuals might be quite varied (Box 2).

The current debate about cognitive enhancement often depends on the premise that the use of these tools would boost people’s intrinsic motivation to perform certain tasks and therefore augment their well-being. The argument also focuses on the role of various contextual factors, such as societal expectations of human performance and a person’s health-related risks. In light of the fact that these arguments are often based on values and beliefs rather than empirical evidence from psychological or social sciences, we argue that they should be critically re-examined.

Elevate Your Thinking: The Fascinating World of Cognitive Enhancers Unveiled

To this end, we argue that a more thorough investigation of the real-world psychological and social outcomes of cognitive enhancement is needed outside of the lab and with more standardized research design. This could allow for a more genuine comparison between the different methods of enhancement and a deeper understanding of the potential impacts on the user as a person, a context-dependent process and an agent who might have very different aims when using cognitive enhancers. It would also allow for a more realistic assessment of whether, and how, these enhancers might be distributed in a way that is fair and ethical.